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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the database language. For other uses, see <a href="SQL_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="SQL (disambiguation)">SQL (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"SEQUEL" redirects here. For the topic of the word, see <a href="Sequel" title="Sequel">sequel</a>. For other uses, see <a href="Sequel_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sequel (disambiguation)">Sequel (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#e0e0e0;">SQL (Structured Query Language)</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Paradigm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">Declarative</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Family</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query language</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Designed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Donald_D._Chamberlin" title="Donald D. Chamberlin">Donald D. Chamberlin</a><br><a href="Raymond_F._Boyce" title="Raymond F. Boyce">Raymond F. Boyce</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">Developer</a></th><td class="infobox-data organiser"><a href="ISO/IEC_JTC_1/SC_32" title="ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 32">ISO/IEC JTC 1 (Joint Technical Committee 1) / SC 32 (Subcommittee 32)</a> / WG 3 (Working Group 3)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First appeared</th><td class="infobox-data">1973<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1973</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;"><a href="SQL%3A2023" title="SQL:2023">SQL:2023</a>

/ June 2023<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">2023-06</span>)</span></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Type_system" title="Type system">Typing discipline</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">Static</a>, <a href="Strong_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong typing">strong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">OS</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Cross-platform" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-platform">Cross-platform</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/standard/76583.html">www<wbr>.iso<wbr>.org<wbr>/standard<wbr>/76583<wbr>.html</a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Major <a href="Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementations</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="List_of_relational_database_management_systems" title="List of relational database management systems">Many</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;"><a href="Programming_language#Dialects,_flavors_and_implementations" title="Programming language">Dialects</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="hlist">

</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced by</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="Datalog" title="Datalog">Datalog</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="Contextual_Query_Language" title="Contextual Query Language">CQL</a>, <a href="Language_Integrated_Query" title="Language Integrated Query">LINQ</a>, <a href="SPARQL" title="SPARQL">SPARQL</a>, SOQL, <a href="PowerShell" title="PowerShell">PowerShell</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ars_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ars-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Java_Persistence_Query_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Java Persistence Query Language">JPQL</a>, <a href="Java_Object_Oriented_Querying" class="mw-redirect" title="Java Object Oriented Querying">jOOQ</a>, <a href="N1QL" class="mw-redirect" title="N1QL">N1QL</a>, <a href="Graph_Query_Language" title="Graph Query Language">GQL</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below hlist" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 3px;">

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structured_Query_Language" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Structured Query Language">Structured Query Language</a> at Wikibooks</li></ul>

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<table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding-bottom: 0.15em;">SQL (file format)</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;"><a href="Filename_extension" title="Filename extension">Filename extension</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">

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.sql</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;"><a href="Media_type" title="Media type">Internet media type</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;"><div class="monospaced">

application/sql<sup id="cite_ref-iana_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iana-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-application/sql_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-application/sql-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;">Developed by</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;"><a href="ISO" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO">ISO</a>/<a href="International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">IEC</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;">Initial release</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;">1986<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1986</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;">Type of format</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;">Database</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;"><a href="International_standard" title="International standard">Standard</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;"><a href="ISO/IEC_9075" title="ISO/IEC 9075">ISO/IEC 9075</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="Open_file_format" title="Open file format">Open format</a>?</span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;">Yes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/standard/76583.html">www<wbr>.iso<wbr>.org<wbr>/standard<wbr>/76583<wbr>.html</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><b>Structured Query Language</b> (<b>SQL</b>) (<small>pronounced</small> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/u/: 'u' in 'influence'">u</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span></span>/</span></span> <i>S-Q-L</i>; <small>or alternatively as</small> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span></span>/</span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/0\/04\/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Flame%2C_not_lame-SQL.wav\/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Flame%2C_not_lame-SQL.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-SQL.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Flame%2C_not_lame-SQL.wav/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Flame%2C_not_lame-SQL.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable">ⓘ</sup></span></span> "sequel")

<sup id="cite_ref-learningSQL_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-learningSQL-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chamberlin2001_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chamberlin2001-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">domain-specific language</a> used to manage data, especially in a <a href="Relational_database_management_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational database management system">relational database management system</a> (RDBMS). It is particularly useful in handling <a href="Data_model" title="Data model">structured data</a>, i.e., data incorporating relations among entities and variables.

</p><p>Introduced in the 1970s, SQL offered two main advantages over older read–write <a href="API" title="API">APIs</a> such as <a href="ISAM" title="ISAM">ISAM</a> or <a href="VSAM" class="mw-redirect" title="VSAM">VSAM</a>. Firstly, it introduced the concept of accessing many <a href="Record_(computer_science)" title="Record (computer science)">records</a> with one single <a href="Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">command</a>. Secondly, it eliminates the need to specify <i>how</i> to reach a record, i.e., with or without an <a href="Database_index" title="Database index">index</a>.

</p><p>Originally based upon <a href="Relational_algebra" title="Relational algebra">relational algebra</a> and <a href="Tuple_relational_calculus" title="Tuple relational calculus">tuple relational calculus</a>, SQL consists of many types of statements,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which may be informally classed as <a href="Sublanguage" title="Sublanguage">sublanguages</a>, commonly: <a href="Data_query_language" title="Data query language">data query language</a> (DQL), <a href="Data_definition_language" title="Data definition language">data definition language</a> (DDL), <a href="Data_control_language" title="Data control language">data control language</a> (DCL), and <a href="Data_manipulation_language" title="Data manipulation language">data manipulation language</a> (DML).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The scope of SQL includes data query, data manipulation (insert, update, and delete), data definition (<a href="Database_schema" title="Database schema">schema</a> creation and modification), and data access control. Although SQL is essentially a <a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">declarative language</a> (<a href="4GL" class="mw-redirect" title="4GL">4GL</a>), it also includes <a href="Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">procedural</a> elements.

</p><p>SQL was one of the first commercial languages to use <a href="Edgar_F._Codd" title="Edgar F. Codd">Edgar F. Codd</a>'s <a href="Relational_model" title="Relational model">relational model</a>. The model was described in his influential 1970 paper, "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks".<sup id="cite_ref-codd-relational-model_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-codd-relational-model-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite not entirely adhering to <a href="Codd's_12_rules" title="Codd's 12 rules">the relational model as described by Codd</a>, SQL became the most widely used database language.<sup id="cite_ref-SQL-Fundamentals_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SQL-Fundamentals-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IBM-sql_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IBM-sql-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>SQL became a <a href="Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">standard</a> of the <a href="American_National_Standards_Institute" title="American National Standards Institute">American National Standards Institute</a> (ANSI) in 1986 and of the <a href="International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO) in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-ISO_9075:1987_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO_9075:1987-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, the standard has been revised multiple times to include a larger set of features and incorporate common extensions. Despite the existence of standards, virtually no implementations in existence adhere to it fully, and most SQL code requires at least some changes before being ported to different <a href="Database" title="Database">database</a> systems.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>SQL was initially developed at <a href="IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> by <a href="Donald_D._Chamberlin" title="Donald D. Chamberlin">Donald D. Chamberlin</a> and <a href="Raymond_F._Boyce" title="Raymond F. Boyce">Raymond F. Boyce</a> after learning about the relational model from <a href="Edgar_F._Codd" title="Edgar F. Codd">Edgar F. Codd</a><sup id="cite_ref-Early_History_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Early_History-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the early 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-chamberlin-boyce-sequel_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chamberlin-boyce-sequel-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This version, initially called SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language), was designed to manipulate and retrieve data stored in IBM's original quasirelational database management system, <a href="IBM_System_R" title="IBM System R">System R</a>, which a group at <a href="IBM_Almaden_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Almaden Research Center">IBM San Jose Research Laboratory</a> had developed during the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-chamberlin-boyce-sequel_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chamberlin-boyce-sequel-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Chamberlin and Boyce's first attempt at a relational database language was SQUARE (Specifying Queries in A Relational Environment), but it was difficult to use due to subscript/superscript notation. After moving to the San Jose Research Laboratory in 1973, they began work on a sequel to SQUARE.<sup id="cite_ref-Early_History_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Early_History-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original name SEQUEL, which is widely regarded as a pun on <a href="QUEL_query_languages" title="QUEL query languages">QUEL</a>, the query language of <a href="Ingres_(database)" title="Ingres (database)">Ingres</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was later changed to SQL (dropping the vowels) because "SEQUEL" was a <a href="Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> of the UK-based <a href="Hawker_Siddeley" title="Hawker Siddeley">Hawker Siddeley</a> Dynamics Engineering Limited company.<sup id="cite_ref-oppel-databases_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oppel-databases-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The label SQL later became the acronym for Structured Query Language.<sup id="cite_ref-TechTarget_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TechTarget-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>After testing SQL at customer test sites to determine the usefulness and practicality of the system, IBM began developing commercial products based on their System R prototype, including <a href="IBM_System/38" title="IBM System/38">System/38</a>, <a href="IBM_SQL/DS" title="IBM SQL/DS">SQL/DS</a>, and <a href="IBM_Db2" title="IBM Db2">IBM Db2</a>, which were commercially available in 1979, 1981, and 1983, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-IBM-history_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IBM-history-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IBM's endorsement caused the industry to move to SQL from alternatives like QUEL.<sup id="cite_ref-morgenthaler20051208_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morgenthaler20051208-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the late 1970s, Relational Software, Inc. (now <a href="Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle Corporation</a>) saw the potential of the concepts described by Codd, Chamberlin, and Boyce, and developed their own SQL-based <a href="Relational_database" title="Relational database">RDBMS</a> with aspirations of selling it to the <a href="United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">U.S. Navy</a>, <a href="Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>, and other <a href="Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">U.S. government</a> agencies. In June 1979, Relational Software introduced one of the first commercially available implementations of SQL, <a href="Oracle_Database" title="Oracle Database">Oracle</a> V2 (Version2) for <a href="VAX" title="VAX">VAX</a> computers.

</p><p>By 1986, <a href="American_National_Standards_Institute" title="American National Standards Institute">ANSI</a> and <a href="International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> standard groups officially adopted the standard "Database Language SQL" language definition. New versions of the standard were published in 1989, 1992, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2011,<sup id="cite_ref-Early_History_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Early_History-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 2016 and most recently, 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interoperability_and_standardization">Interoperability and standardization</h2></div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Standardization_history">SQL language revisions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

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</style></td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3></div>

<p>SQL implementations are incompatible between vendors and do not necessarily completely follow standards. In particular, date and time syntax, string concatenation, <code>NULL</code>s, and comparison <a href="Case_sensitivity" title="Case sensitivity">case sensitivity</a> vary from vendor to vendor. <a href="PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL">PostgreSQL</a><sup id="cite_ref-About_PostgreSQL_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-About_PostgreSQL-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="Mimer_SQL" title="Mimer SQL">Mimer SQL</a><sup id="cite_ref-Mimer_SQL,_Built_on_Standards_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mimer_SQL,_Built_on_Standards-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> strive for standards compliance, though PostgreSQL does not adhere to the standard in all cases. For example, the folding of unquoted names to lower case in PostgreSQL is incompatible with the SQL standard,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which says that unquoted names should be folded to upper case.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, according to the standard, <code>Foo</code> should be equivalent to <code>FOO</code>, not <code>foo</code>.

</p><p>Popular implementations of SQL commonly omit support for basic features of Standard SQL, such as the <code>DATE</code> or <code>TIME</code> data types. The most obvious such examples, and incidentally the most popular commercial and proprietary SQL DBMSs, are Oracle (whose <code>DATE</code> behaves as <code>DATETIME</code>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ora_DATE_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ora_DATE-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ora_DATETIME_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ora_DATETIME-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lacks a <code>TIME</code> type)<sup id="cite_ref-Ora_TIME_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ora_TIME-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and MS SQL Server (before the 2008 version). As a result, SQL code can rarely be ported between database systems without modifications.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reasons_for_incompatibility">Reasons for incompatibility</h3></div>

<p>Several reasons for the lack of portability between database systems include:

</p>

<ul><li>The complexity and size of the SQL standard means that most implementers do not support the entire standard.</li>

<li>The SQL standard does not specify the database behavior in some important areas (e.g., <a href="Index_(database)" class="mw-redirect" title="Index (database)">indices</a>, file storage), leaving implementations to decide how to behave.</li>

<li>The SQL standard defers some decisions to individual implementations, such as how to name a results column that was not named explicitly.<sup id="cite_ref-professionals_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-professionals-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 207">: 207 </span></sup></li>

<li>The SQL standard precisely specifies the syntax that a conforming database system must implement. However, the standard's specification of the semantics of language constructs is less well-defined, leading to ambiguity.</li>

<li>Many database vendors have large existing customer bases; where the newer version of the SQL standard conflicts with the prior behavior of the vendor's database, the vendor may be unwilling to break <a href="Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">backward compatibility</a>.</li>

<li>Little commercial incentive exists for vendors to make changing database suppliers easier (see <a href="Vendor_lock-in" title="Vendor lock-in">vendor lock-in</a>).</li>

<li>Users evaluating database software tend to place other factors such as performance higher in their priorities than standards conformance.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standardization_history">Standardization history</h3></div>

<p>SQL was adopted as a standard by the ANSI in 1986 as SQL-86<sup id="cite_ref-X3H2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-X3H2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the ISO in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-ISO_9075:1987_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO_9075:1987-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is maintained by <a href="ISO/IEC_JTC_1/SC_32" title="ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 32"><i>ISO/IEC JTC 1, Information technology, Subcommittee SC 32, Data management and interchange</i></a>.

</p><p>Until 1996, the <a href="National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a> (NIST) data-management standards program certified SQL DBMS compliance with the SQL standard. Vendors now self-certify the compliance of their products.<sup id="cite_ref-Doll_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doll-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The original standard declared that the official pronunciation for "SQL" was an <a href="Initialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Initialism">initialism</a>: <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/juː/: 'u' in 'cute'">juː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span></span>/</span></span> ("ess cue el").<sup id="cite_ref-SQL-Fundamentals_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SQL-Fundamentals-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless, many English-speaking database professionals (including Donald Chamberlin himself<sup id="cite_ref-Gillespie_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gillespie-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) use the <a href="Acronym" title="Acronym">acronym</a>-like pronunciation of <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/əl/: 'le' in 'bottle'">əl</span></span>/</span></span> ("sequel"),<sup id="cite_ref-Melton_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Melton-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mirroring the language's prerelease development name, "SEQUEL".<sup id="cite_ref-chamberlin-boyce-sequel_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chamberlin-boyce-sequel-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oppel-databases_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oppel-databases-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gillespie_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gillespie-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br> The SQL standard has gone through a number of revisions:

</p>

<caption>Timeline of SQL language

</caption>

<th>Year

</th>

<th>Official standard

</th>

<th>Informal<br>name

</th>

<th>Comments

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>1986<br>1987

</td>

<td>ANSI X3.135:1986<br><a href="ISO/IEC_9075" title="ISO/IEC 9075">ISO/IEC 9075</a>:1987<br>FIPS PUB 127

</td>

<td>SQL-86<br>SQL-87

</td>

<td>First formalized by ANSI, adopted as <a href="Federal_Information_Processing_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Information Processing Standard">FIPS</a> PUB 127

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1989

</td>

<td>ANSI X3.135-1989<br>ISO/IEC 9075:1989<br>FIPS PUB 127-1

</td>

<td>SQL-89

</td>

<td>Minor revision that added integrity constraints, adopted as FIPS PUB 127-1

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1992

</td>

<td>ANSI X3.135-1992<br>ISO/IEC 9075:1992<br>FIPS PUB 127-2

</td>

<td><a href="SQL-92" title="SQL-92">SQL-92</a><br>SQL2

</td>

<td>Major revision (ISO 9075), <i>Entry Level</i> SQL-92, adopted as FIPS PUB 127-2

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1999

</td>

<td>ISO/IEC 9075:1999

</td>

<td><a href="SQL%3A1999" title="SQL:1999">SQL:1999</a><br>SQL3

</td>

<td>Added regular expression matching, <a href="Hierarchical_and_recursive_queries_in_SQL" title="Hierarchical and recursive queries in SQL">recursive queries</a> (e.g., <a href="Transitive_closure" title="Transitive closure">transitive closure</a>), <a href="Database_trigger" title="Database trigger">triggers</a>, support for procedural and control-of-flow statements, nonscalar types (arrays), and some object-oriented features (e.g., <a href="Structured_type" title="Structured type">structured types</a>), support for embedding SQL in Java (<a href="SQL/OLB" title="SQL/OLB">SQL/OLB</a>) and vice versa (<a href="SQL/JRT" title="SQL/JRT">SQL/JRT</a>)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2003

</td>

<td>ISO/IEC 9075:2003

</td>

</td>

<td>Introduced <a href="XML" title="XML">XML</a>-related features (<a href="SQL/XML" title="SQL/XML">SQL/XML</a>), <a href="SQL_window_function" class="mw-redirect" title="SQL window function">window functions</a>, standardized sequences, and columns with autogenerated values (including identity columns)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2006

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>Adds Part 14, defines ways that SQL can be used with XML. It defines ways of importing and storing XML data in an SQL database, manipulating it within the database, and publishing both XML and conventional SQL data in XML form. In addition, it lets applications integrate queries into their SQL code with <a href="XQuery" title="XQuery">XQuery</a>, the XML Query Language published by the World Wide Web Consortium (<a href="W3C" class="mw-redirect" title="W3C">W3C</a>), to concurrently access ordinary SQL-data and XML documents.<sup id="cite_ref-SQLXML2006_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SQLXML2006-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2008

</td>

<td>ISO/IEC 9075:2008

</td>

</td>

<td>Legalizes ORDER BY outside cursor definitions. Adds INSTEAD OF triggers, TRUNCATE statement,<sup id="cite_ref-iablog.sybase.com-paulley_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iablog.sybase.com-paulley-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> FETCH clause

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2011

</td>

<td>ISO/IEC 9075:2011

</td>

</td>

<td>Adds temporal data (PERIOD FOR)<sup id="cite_ref-feature_temporal_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feature_temporal-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (more information at <a href="Temporal_database#History" title="Temporal database">Temporal database#History</a>). Enhancements for <a href="SQL_window_function" class="mw-redirect" title="SQL window function">window functions</a> and FETCH clause.<sup id="cite_ref-features_2011_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-features_2011-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2016

</td>

<td>ISO/IEC 9075:2016

</td>

</td>

<td>Adds row pattern matching, polymorphic table functions, operations on <a href="JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a> data stored in character string fields

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2019

</td>

<td>ISO/IEC 9075-15:2019

</td>

<td>SQL:2019

</td>

<td>Adds Part 15, multidimensional arrays (MDarray type and operators)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2023

</td>

<td>ISO/IEC 9075:2023

</td>

</td>

<td>Adds data type JSON (SQL/Foundation); Adds Part 16, Property Graph Queries (SQL/PGQ)

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_standard">Current standard</h3></div>

<p>The standard is commonly denoted by the pattern: <i>ISO/IEC 9075-n:yyyy Part n: title</i>, or, as a shortcut, <i><a href="ISO/IEC_9075" title="ISO/IEC 9075">ISO/IEC 9075</a></i>. Interested parties may purchase the standards documents from ISO,<sup id="cite_ref-ISO/IEC_9075_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO/IEC_9075-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IEC, or ANSI. Some old drafts are freely available.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrew_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrew-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitemarsh2_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitemarsh2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><i><a href="ISO/IEC_9075" title="ISO/IEC 9075">ISO/IEC 9075</a></i> is complemented by <i>ISO/IEC 13249: SQL Multimedia and Application Packages</i> and some <i>Technical reports</i>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="SQL_syntax" title="SQL syntax">SQL syntax</a></div>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \underbrace {\left.{\begin{array}{rl}\textstyle {\mathtt {UPDATE~clause{\mathtt {:}}}}&\{{\mathtt {UPDATE\ \overbrace {\mathtt {countries}} ^{\mathtt {table}}}}\}\\\textstyle {\mathtt {SET~clause:}}&\{{{\mathtt {SET\ \overbrace {\mathtt {population}} ^{\mathtt {column}}=~}}\overbrace {\mathtt {{population}+\underbrace {\mathtt {1}} _{\mathtt {literal}}}} ^{\mathtt {expression}}}\}\\\textstyle {\mathtt {WHERE~clause:}}&\{{{\mathtt {WHERE\ \underbrace {\overbrace {\mathtt {name}} ^{\mathtt {column}}{\mathtt {=}}\overbrace {\overbrace {\mathtt {'USA'}} ^{\mathtt {literal}}} ^{\mathtt {expression}}} _{\mathtt {predicate}}}}\}{\texttt {;}}}\end{array}}\right\}{\textstyle {\texttt {statement}}}} _{\textstyle {\mathtt {SQL~query}}}}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./a2de4ab06da2ded13e608b35b6e191b664b05560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -17.505ex; margin-right: -0.028ex; width:75.996ex; height:31.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \underbrace {\left.{\begin{array}{rl}\textstyle {\mathtt {UPDATE~clause{\mathtt {:}}}}&\{{\mathtt {UPDATE\ \overbrace {\mathtt {countries}} ^{\mathtt {table}}}}\}\\\textstyle {\mathtt {SET~clause:}}&\{{{\mathtt {SET\ \overbrace {\mathtt {population}} ^{\mathtt {column}}=~}}\overbrace {\mathtt {{population}+\underbrace {\mathtt {1}} _{\mathtt {literal}}}} ^{\mathtt {expression}}}\}\\\textstyle {\mathtt {WHERE~clause:}}&\{{{\mathtt {WHERE\ \underbrace {\overbrace {\mathtt {name}} ^{\mathtt {column}}{\mathtt {=}}\overbrace {\overbrace {\mathtt {'USA'}} ^{\mathtt {literal}}} ^{\mathtt {expression}}} _{\mathtt {predicate}}}}\}{\texttt {;}}}\end{array}}\right\}{\textstyle {\texttt {statement}}}} _{\textstyle {\mathtt {SQL~query}}}}" loading="lazy"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A chart showing several of the SQL language elements comprising a single statement</div></div></div>

<p>The SQL language is subdivided into several language elements, including:

</p>

<ul><li><i>Clauses</i>, which are constituent components of statements and queries. (In some cases, these are optional.)<sup id="cite_ref-ANSI/ISO/IEC_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANSI/ISO/IEC-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>Expressions</i>, which can produce either <a href="Scalar_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalar (computing)">scalar</a> values, or <a href="Table_(database)" title="Table (database)">tables</a> consisting of <a href="Column_(database)" title="Column (database)">columns</a> and <a href="Row_(database)" title="Row (database)">rows</a> of data</li>

<li><i>Predicates</i>, which specify conditions that can be evaluated to SQL <a href="Three-valued_logic" title="Three-valued logic">three-valued logic (3VL)</a> (true/false/unknown) or <a href="Boolean_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean logic">Boolean</a> <a href="Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth values</a> and are used to limit the effects of statements and queries, or to change program flow.</li>

<li><i>Queries</i>, which retrieve the data based on specific criteria. This is an important element of <i>SQL</i>.</li>

<li><i>Statements</i>, which may have a persistent effect on schemata and data, or may control <a href="Database_transaction" title="Database transaction">transactions</a>, program flow, connections, sessions, or diagnostics.

<ul><li>SQL statements also include the <a href="Semicolon" title="Semicolon">semicolon</a> (";") statement terminator. Though not required on every platform, it is defined as a standard part of the SQL grammar.</li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Whitespace_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitespace (computer science)">Insignificant whitespace</a></i> is generally ignored in SQL statements and queries, making it easier to format SQL code for readability.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Procedural_extensions">Procedural extensions</h2></div>

<p>SQL is designed for a specific purpose: to query <a href="Data" title="Data">data</a> contained in a <a href="Relational_database" title="Relational database">relational database</a>. SQL is a <a href="Set_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Set (computer science)">set</a>-based, <a href="Declarative_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative programming language">declarative programming language</a>, not an <a href="Imperative_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperative programming language">imperative programming language</a> like <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> or <a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>. However, extensions to Standard SQL add <a href="Procedural_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Procedural programming language">procedural programming language</a> functionality, such as control-of-flow constructs.

</p><p>In addition to the standard <a href="SQL/PSM" title="SQL/PSM">SQL/PSM</a> extensions and proprietary SQL extensions, procedural and <a href="Object-oriented_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Object-oriented programming language">object-oriented</a> programmability is available on many SQL platforms via DBMS integration with other languages. The SQL standard defines <a href="SQL/JRT" title="SQL/JRT">SQL/JRT</a> extensions (SQL Routines and Types for the Java Programming Language) to support <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> code in SQL databases. <a href="Microsoft_SQL_Server_2005" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft SQL Server 2005">Microsoft SQL Server 2005</a> uses the <a href="SQLCLR" class="mw-redirect" title="SQLCLR">SQLCLR</a> (SQL Server Common Language Runtime) to host managed <a href="Microsoft_.NET" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft .NET">.NET</a> assemblies in the <a href="Database" title="Database">database</a>, while prior versions of SQL Server were restricted to unmanaged extended stored procedures primarily written in C. <a href="PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL">PostgreSQL</a> lets users write functions in a wide variety of languages—including <a href="Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>, <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="Tcl" title="Tcl">Tcl</a>, <a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> (PL/V8) and C.<sup id="cite_ref-PostgreSQL_server_programming_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PostgreSQL_server_programming-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternatives">Alternatives</h2></div>

<p>A distinction should be made between alternatives to SQL as a language, and alternatives to the relational model itself. Below are proposed relational alternatives to the SQL language. See <a href="Navigational_database" title="Navigational database">navigational database</a> and <a href="NoSQL" title="NoSQL">NoSQL</a> for alternatives to the relational model.

</p>

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<ul><li><a href=".QL" title=".QL">.QL</a>: object-oriented Datalog</li>

<li><a href="4th_Dimension_(Software)" class="mw-redirect" title="4th Dimension (Software)">4D Query Language</a> (4D QL)</li>

<li><a href="Datalog" title="Datalog">Datalog</a>: critics suggest that <a href="Datalog" title="Datalog">Datalog</a> has two advantages over SQL: it has cleaner semantics, which facilitates program understanding and maintenance, and it is more expressive, in particular for recursive queries.<sup id="cite_ref-PROLE_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PROLE-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="HTSQL" title="HTSQL">HTSQL</a>: URL based query method</li>

<li><a href="IBM_Business_System_12" title="IBM Business System 12">IBM Business System 12</a> (IBM BS12): one of the first fully relational database management systems, introduced in 1982</li>

<li><a href="Java_Object_Oriented_Querying" class="mw-redirect" title="Java Object Oriented Querying">jOOQ</a>: SQL implemented in Java as an <a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">internal domain-specific language</a></li>

<li><a href="Java_Persistence_Query_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Java Persistence Query Language">Java Persistence Query Language</a> (JPQL): The query language used by the Java Persistence API and <a href="Hibernate_(Java)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibernate (Java)">Hibernate</a> persistence library</li>

<li><a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>: <a href="MongoDB" title="MongoDB">MongoDB</a> implements its query language in a JavaScript API.</li>

<li><a href="Language_Integrated_Query" title="Language Integrated Query">LINQ</a>: Runs SQL statements written like language constructs to query collections directly from inside <a href=".NET_Framework" title=".NET Framework">.Net</a> code</li>

<li><a href="Object_Query_Language" title="Object Query Language">Object Query Language</a></li>

<li>QBE (<a href="Query_By_Example" class="mw-redirect" title="Query By Example">Query By Example</a>) created by Moshè Zloof, IBM 1977</li>

<li><a href="QUEL_query_languages" title="QUEL query languages">QUEL</a> introduced in 1974 by the U.C. Berkeley Ingres project, closer to <a href="Tuple_relational_calculus" title="Tuple relational calculus">tuple relational calculus</a> than SQL</li>

<li><a href="XQuery" title="XQuery">XQuery</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distributed_SQL_processing">Distributed SQL processing</h2></div>

<p><a href="DRDA" title="DRDA">Distributed Relational Database Architecture</a> (DRDA) was designed by a workgroup within IBM from 1988 to 1994. DRDA enables network-connected relational databases to cooperate to fulfill SQL requests.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>An interactive user or program can issue SQL statements to a local RDB and receive tables of data and status indicators in reply from remote RDBs. SQL statements can also be compiled and stored in remote RDBs as packages and then invoked by package name. This is important for the efficient operation of application programs that issue complex, high-frequency queries. It is especially important when the tables to be accessed are located in remote systems.

</p><p>The messages, protocols, and structural components of DRDA are defined by the <a href="Distributed_Data_Management_Architecture" title="Distributed Data Management Architecture">Distributed Data Management Architecture</a>. Distributed SQL processing ala DRDA is distinctive from contemporary <a href="Distributed_SQL" title="Distributed SQL">distributed SQL</a> databases.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Design">Design</h3></div>

<p>SQL deviates in several ways from its theoretical foundation, the relational model and its tuple calculus. In that model, a table is a <a href="Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">set</a> of tuples, while in SQL, tables and query results are <a href="List_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="List (computing)">lists</a> of rows; the same row may occur multiple times, and the order of rows can be employed in queries (e.g., in the LIMIT clause).

Critics argue that SQL should be replaced with a language that returns strictly to the original foundation: for example, see <i>The Third Manifesto</i> by Hugh Darwen and C.J. Date (2006, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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</style><a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-321-39942-0</bdi>).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orthogonality_and_completeness">Orthogonality and completeness</h3></div>

<p>Early specifications did not support major features, such as primary keys. Result sets could not be named, and subqueries had not been defined. These were added in 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-Early_History_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Early_History-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The lack of <a href="Sum_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Sum type">sum types</a> has been described as a roadblock to full use of SQL's user-defined types. JSON support, for example, needed to be added by a new standard in 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-Brandon21_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandon21-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The concept of <a href="Null_(SQL)" title="Null (SQL)">Null</a> is the subject of some <a href="Null_(SQL)#Criticisms" title="Null (SQL)">debate</a>. The Null marker indicates the absence of a value, and is distinct from a value of 0 for an integer column or an empty string for a text column. The concept of Nulls enforces the <a href="Null_(SQL)#Comparisons_with_NULL_and_the_three-valued_logic_(3VL)" title="Null (SQL)">3-valued-logic in SQL</a>, which is a concrete implementation of the general <a href="Three-valued_logic" title="Three-valued logic">3-valued logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Early_History_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Early_History-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duplicates">Duplicates</h3></div>

<p>Another popular criticism is that it allows duplicate rows, making integration with languages such as <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, whose data types might make accurately representing the data difficult,<sup id="cite_ref-Early_History_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Early_History-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in terms of parsing and by the absence of modularity. This is usually avoided by declaring a primary key, or a unique constraint, with one or more columns that uniquely identify a row in the table.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impedance_mismatch">Impedance mismatch</h3></div>

<p>In a sense similar to <a href="Object%E2%80%93relational_impedance_mismatch" title="Object–relational impedance mismatch">object–relational impedance mismatch</a>, a mismatch occurs between the declarative SQL language and the procedural languages in which SQL is typically embedded.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="SQL_data_types">SQL data types</h2></div>

<p>The SQL standard defines three kinds of <a href="Data_type" title="Data type">data types</a> (chapter 4.1.1 of SQL/Foundation):

</p>

<ul><li>predefined data types</li>

<li>constructed types</li>

<li>user-defined types.</li></ul>

<p><i>Constructed types</i> are one of ARRAY, MULTISET, REF(erence), or ROW. <i>User-defined types</i> are comparable to classes in object-oriented language with their own constructors, observers, mutators, methods, inheritance, overloading, overwriting, interfaces, and so on. <i>Predefined data types</i> are intrinsically supported by the implementation.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predefined_data_types">Predefined data types</h3></div>

<ul><li>Character types

<ul><li>Character (CHAR)</li>

<li>Character varying (VARCHAR)</li>

<li>Character large object (CLOB)</li></ul></li>

<li>National character types

<ul><li>National character (NCHAR)</li>

<li>National character varying (NCHAR VARYING)</li>

<li>National character large object (NCLOB)</li></ul></li>

<li>Binary types

<ul><li>Binary (BINARY)</li>

<li>Binary varying (VARBINARY)</li>

<li>Binary large object (BLOB)</li></ul></li>

<li>Numeric types

<ul><li>Exact numeric types (NUMERIC, DECIMAL, SMALLINT, INTEGER, BIGINT)</li>

<li>Approximate numeric types (FLOAT, REAL, DOUBLE PRECISION)</li>

<li>Decimal floating-point type (DECFLOAT)</li></ul></li>

<li>Datetime types (DATE, TIME, TIMESTAMP)</li>

<li>Interval type (INTERVAL)</li>

<li>Boolean</li>

<ul><li><a href="Object_database" title="Object database">Object database</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_relational_database_management_systems" title="List of relational database management systems">List of relational database management systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_relational_database_management_systems" title="Comparison of relational database management systems">Comparison of relational database management systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_object%E2%80%93relational_database_management_systems" title="Comparison of object–relational database management systems">Comparison of object–relational database management systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_by_Example" title="Query by Example">Query by Example</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_SQL_reserved_words" title="List of SQL reserved words">SQL reserved words</a></li>

<li><a href="SQL_syntax" title="SQL syntax">SQL syntax</a></li>

<li><a href="PL/SQL" title="PL/SQL">Oracle PL/SQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Transact-SQL" title="Transact-SQL">Microsoft Transact-SQL (T-SQL)</a></li>

<li><a href="Online_transaction_processing" title="Online transaction processing">Online transaction processing (OLTP)</a></li>

<li><a href="Online_analytical_processing" title="Online analytical processing">Online analytical processing (OLAP)</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_warehouse" title="Data warehouse">Data warehouse</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_data_stream_management_system" title="Relational data stream management system">Relational data stream management system</a></li>

<li><a href="NoSQL" title="NoSQL">NoSQL</a></li>

<li><a href="MUMPS" title="MUMPS">MUMPS</a></li>

<li><a href="Hierarchical_database_model" title="Hierarchical database model">Hierarchical database model</a></li>

<li><a href="Star_schema" title="Star schema">Star schema</a></li>

<li><a href="Snowflake_schema" title="Snowflake schema">Snowflake schema</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-ars-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ars_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPaul2005" class="citation web cs1">Paul, Ryan (24 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/business/news/2005/10/msh.ars/4">"A guided tour of the Microsoft Command Shell"</a>. <i>Ars Technica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-iana-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-iana_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/application/sql">"Media Type registration for application/sql"</a>. <a href="Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority" title="Internet Assigned Numbers Authority">Internet Assigned Numbers Authority</a>. 10 April 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130507140101/http://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/application/sql">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-application/sql-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-application/sql_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShafranovich2013" class="citation web cs1">Shafranovich, Y. (April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6922">"The application/sql Media Type, RFC 6922"</a>. <a href="Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a>. p. 3. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC6922">10.17487/RFC6922</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141013172428/http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6922">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-learningSQL-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-learningSQL_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBeaulieu2009" class="citation book cs1">Beaulieu, Alan (April 2009). Mary E Treseler (ed.). <i>Learning SQL</i> (2nd ed.). Sebastopol, CA, USA: O'Reilly. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-596-52083-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-chamberlin2001-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chamberlin2001_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlinFrana2001" class="citation journal cs1">Chamberlin, Donald D.; Frana, Philip L. (3 October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/107215">"Oral history interview with Donald D. Chamberlin"</a>. <i>University Digital Conservancy</i>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11299%2F107215">11299/107215</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200224145836/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/107215">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2020</span>. <q>We changed the original name "SEQUEL" to SQL because we got a letter from somebody's lawyer that said the name "SEQUEL" belonged to them. We shortened it to SQL, for Structured Query Language, and the product was known as SQL/DS.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="SQL-92" title="SQL-92">SQL-92</a>, 4.22 SQL-statements, 4.22.1 Classes of SQL-statements "There are at least five ways of classifying SQL-statements:", 4.22.2, SQL statements classified by function "The following are the main classes of SQL-statements:"; <a href="SQL%3A2003" title="SQL:2003">SQL:2003</a> 4.11 SQL-statements, and later revisions.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-features_2011-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-features_2011_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFred_Zemke2012" class="citation web cs1">Fred Zemke (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sigmodrecord.org/publications/sigmodRecord/1203/pdfs/10.industry.zemke.pdf">"What's new in SQL:2011"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Oracle Corporation.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ISO/IEC_9075-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ISO/IEC_9075_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/search.html">"ISO/IEC 9075"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220812025804/https://www.iso.org/search.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Andrew-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Andrew_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql/sql1992.txt"><i>SQL:1992 draft</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(text)</span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060621035823/http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/%7Eshadow/sql/sql1992.txt">archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2009</span></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Whitemarsh2-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whitemarsh2_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230525220603/https://www.wiscorp.com/sql20nn.zip"><i>SQL:2011 draft</i></a>, Whitemarsh Information Systems Corporation, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wiscorp.com/sql20nn.zip">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Zip)</span> on 25 May 2023</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ANSI/ISO/IEC-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ANSI/ISO/IEC_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ANSI/ISO/IEC International Standard (IS). Database Language SQL—Part 2: Foundation (SQL/Foundation). 1999.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-PostgreSQL_server_programming-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PostgreSQL_server_programming_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/static/server-programming.html">"PostgreSQL server programming"</a>. <i>PostgreSQL 9.1 official documentation</i>. postgresql.org. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302074948/http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/static/server-programming.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-PROLE-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PROLE_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFernando_Saenz-Perez" class="citation web cs1">Fernando Saenz-Perez. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lbd.udc.es/jornadas2011/actas/PROLE/PROLE/S5/13_article.pdf">"Outer Joins in a Deductive Database System"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Lbd.udc.es</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160809225439/http://lbd.udc.es/jornadas2011/actas/PROLE/PROLE/S5/13_article.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFReinsch,_R.1988" class="citation journal cs1">Reinsch, R. (1988). "Distributed database for SAA". <i>IBM Systems Journal</i>. <b>27</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">362–</span>389. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1147%2Fsj.273.0362">10.1147/sj.273.0362</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Distributed Relational Database Architecture Reference</i>. IBM Corp. SC26-4651-0. 1990.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Brandon21-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brandon21_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBrandon2021" class="citation web cs1">Brandon, Jamie (July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scattered-thoughts.net/writing/against-sql/">"Against SQL"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oracle.com/technetwork/database/sql-2003-twp-129141.pdf">"SQL 2003 Standard Support in Oracle Database 10g"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Oracle</i>. <a href="Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle Corporation</a>. November 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240327155056/https://www.oracle.com/technetwork/database/sql-2003-twp-129141.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 27 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite> XML supported was added in ANSI SQL 2003, part 14.</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCodd1970" class="citation journal cs1">Codd, Edgar F (June 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F362384.362685">"A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks"</a>. <i>Communications of the ACM</i>. <b>13</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">377–</span>87. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F362384.362685">10.1145/362384.362685</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207549016">207549016</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a href="https://wiki.c2.com/?SqlFlaws" class="extiw external" title="c2:SqlFlaws">Discussion on alleged SQL flaws</a> (C2 wiki)</li>

<li><a href="C._J._Date" class="mw-redirect" title="C. J. Date">C. J. Date</a> with <a href="Hugh_Darwen" title="Hugh Darwen">Hugh Darwen</a>: <i>A Guide to the SQL standard : a users guide to the standard database language SQL, 4th ed.</i>, Addison Wesley, USA 1997, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-201-96426-4</bdi></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mcjones.org/System_R/SQL_Reunion_95/sqlr95.html"><i>1995 SQL Reunion: People, Projects, and Politics</i>, by Paul McJones (ed.)</a>: transcript of a reunion meeting devoted to the personal history of relational databases and SQL.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://special.lib.umn.edu/findaid/xml/cbi00168.xml">American National Standards Institute. X3H2 Records, 1978–1995</a> <a href="Charles_Babbage_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a> Collection documents the H2 committee's development of the NDL and SQL standards.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.umn.edu/107215">Oral history interview with Donald D. Chamberlin</a> <a href="Charles_Babbage_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a> In this oral history Chamberlin recounts his early life, his education at <a href="Harvey_Mudd_College" title="Harvey Mudd College">Harvey Mudd College</a> and <a href="Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>, and his work on relational database technology. Chamberlin was a member of the System R research team and, with <a href="Raymond_F._Boyce" title="Raymond F. Boyce">Raymond F. Boyce</a>, developed the SQL database language. Chamberlin also briefly discusses his more recent research on XML query languages.</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="SQL70" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="SQL70" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Versions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="SEQUEL" class="mw-redirect" title="SEQUEL">SEQUEL</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="SQL_reserved_words" class="mw-redirect" title="SQL reserved words">Keywords</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Create_(SQL)" class="mw-redirect" title="Create (SQL)">Create</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Delete_(SQL)" title="Delete (SQL)">Delete</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Group_by_(SQL)" title="Group by (SQL)">Group by</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Having_(SQL)" title="Having (SQL)">Having</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Insert_(SQL)" title="Insert (SQL)">Insert</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Merge_(SQL)" title="Merge (SQL)">Merge</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Order_by" title="Order by">Order by</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Prepare_(SQL)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepare (SQL)">Prepare</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Select_(SQL)" title="Select (SQL)">Select</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Truncate_(SQL)" title="Truncate (SQL)">Truncate</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Set_operations_(SQL)" title="Set operations (SQL)">Union</a></span></li>

<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="Update_(SQL)" title="Update (SQL)">Update</a></span></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Edgar_F._Codd" title="Edgar F. Codd">Edgar Codd</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_database" title="Relational database">Relational database</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">ISO/IEC SQL parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Framework</li>

<li>Foundation</li>

<li><a href="SQL/CLI" class="mw-redirect" title="SQL/CLI">Call-Level Interface</a></li>

<li><a href="SQL/PSM" title="SQL/PSM">Persistent Stored Modules</a></li>

<li><a href="SQL/MED" title="SQL/MED">Management of External Data</a></li>

<li><a href="SQL/OLB" title="SQL/OLB">Object Language Bindings</a></li>

<li><a href="SQL/Schemata" title="SQL/Schemata">Information and Definition Schemas</a></li>

<li><a href="SQL/JRT" title="SQL/JRT">SQL Routines and Types for the Java Programming Language</a></li>

<li><a href="SQL/XML" title="SQL/XML">XML-Related Specifications</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles92" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles92" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px">

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Database_management_systems327" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Database_management_systems327" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Database" title="Database">Database management systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Object_database" title="Object database">Object-oriented</a>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_object_database_management_systems" title="Comparison of object database management systems">comparison</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Relational_database" title="Relational database">Relational</a>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_relational_database_management_systems" title="Comparison of relational database management systems">comparison</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Key%E2%80%93value_database" title="Key–value database">Key–value</a></li>

<li><a href="Column-oriented_DBMS" class="mw-redirect" title="Column-oriented DBMS">Column-oriented</a>

<li><a href="Document-oriented_database" title="Document-oriented database">Document-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Wide-column_store" title="Wide-column store">Wide-column store</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_database" title="Graph database">Graph</a></li>

<li><a href="NoSQL" title="NoSQL">NoSQL</a></li>

<li><a href="NewSQL" title="NewSQL">NewSQL</a></li>

<li><a href="In-memory_database" title="In-memory database">In-memory</a>

<li><a href="Multi-model_database" title="Multi-model database">Multi-model</a>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_multi-model_databases" title="Comparison of multi-model databases">comparison</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cloud_database" title="Cloud database">Cloud</a></li>

<li><a href="Blockchain-based_database" title="Blockchain-based database">Blockchain-based database</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database" title="Database">Database</a></li>

<li><a href="Armstrong's_axioms" title="Armstrong's axioms">Armstrong's axioms</a></li>

<li><a href="Codd's_12_rules" title="Codd's 12 rules">Codd's 12 rules</a></li>

<li><a href="CAP_theorem" title="CAP theorem">CAP theorem</a></li>

<li><a href="Candidate_key" title="Candidate key">Candidate key</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_key" title="Foreign key">Foreign key</a></li>

<li><a href="PACELC_design_principle" title="PACELC design principle">PACELC design principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Superkey" title="Superkey">Superkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Surrogate_key" title="Surrogate key">Surrogate key</a></li>

<li><a href="Unique_key" title="Unique key">Unique key</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Relation_(database)" title="Relation (database)">Relation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Table_(database)" title="Table (database)">table</a></li>

<li><a href="Column_(database)" title="Column (database)">column</a></li>

<li><a href="Database_transaction" title="Database transaction">Transaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Transaction_log" title="Transaction log">Transaction log</a></li>

<li><a href="Database_trigger" title="Database trigger">Trigger</a></li>

<li><a href="Database_index" title="Database index">Index</a></li>

<li><a href="Stored_procedure" title="Stored procedure">Stored procedure</a></li>

<li><a href="Cursor_(databases)" title="Cursor (databases)">Cursor</a></li>

<li><a href="Partition_(database)" title="Partition (database)">Partition</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Concurrency_control" title="Concurrency control">Concurrency control</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_dictionary" title="Data dictionary">Data dictionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query language</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_optimization" title="Query optimization">Query optimizer</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_Rewriting" class="mw-redirect" title="Query Rewriting">Query rewriting system</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_plan" title="Query plan">Query plan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Functions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database_administration" title="Database administration">Administration</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_optimization" title="Query optimization">Query optimization</a></li>

<li><a href="Replication_(computing)#DATABASE" title="Replication (computing)">Replication</a></li>

<li><a href="Shard_(database_architecture)" title="Shard (database architecture)">Sharding</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database_model" title="Database model">Database models</a></li>

<li><a href="Database_normalization" title="Database normalization">Database normalization</a></li>

<li>Database storage</li>

<li><a href="Distributed_database" title="Distributed database">Distributed database</a></li>

<li><a href="Federated_database_system" title="Federated database system">Federated database system</a></li>

<li><a href="Referential_integrity" title="Referential integrity">Referential integrity</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_algebra" title="Relational algebra">Relational algebra</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_calculus" title="Relational calculus">Relational calculus</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_model" title="Relational model">Relational model</a></li>

<li><a href="Object%E2%80%93relational_database" title="Object–relational database">Object–relational database</a></li>

<li><a href="Transaction_processing" title="Transaction processing">Transaction processing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_databases" title="Outline of databases">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Programming_languages625" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Programming_languages625" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming languages">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a>

<ul><li><a href="Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic" title="Visual Basic">Visual Basic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic_(classic)" title="Visual Basic (classic)">classic</a></li>

<li><a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a></li>

<li><a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a>

<ul><li><a href="Elixir_(programming_language)" title="Elixir (programming language)">Elixir</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a></li>

<li><a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li>

<li><a href="Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li>

<li><a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a></li>

<li><a href="Kotlin_(programming_language)" title="Kotlin (programming language)">Kotlin</a></li>

<li><a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a></li>

<li><a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a></li>

<li><a href="Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming language)">Scratch</a></li>

<li><a href="Shell_script" title="Shell script">Shell</a></li>

<li><a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"></span></span> <b>Lists:</b> <a href="List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">Alphabetical</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">Categorical</a></li>

<li><a href="Generational_list_of_programming_languages" title="Generational list of programming languages">Generational</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Query_languages54" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Query_languages54" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In current use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Alpha_(programming_language)" title="Alpha (programming language)">ALPHA</a></li>

<li><a href="Cypher_(query_language)" title="Cypher (query language)">Cypher</a></li>

<li><a href="Datalog" title="Datalog">Datalog</a></li>

<li><a href="GraphQL" title="GraphQL">GraphQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_Query_Language" title="Graph Query Language">Graph Query Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Gremlin_(query_language)" title="Gremlin (query language)">Gremlin</a></li>

<li><a href="SMILES_arbitrary_target_specification" title="SMILES arbitrary target specification">SMARTS</a></li>

<li><a href="SPARQL" title="SPARQL">SPARQL</a></li>

<li><a href="XQuery" title="XQuery">XQuery</a></li>

<li><a href="XPath" title="XPath">XPath</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proprietary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superseded</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="CODASYL" title="CODASYL">CODASYL</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="IBM940" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="IBM940" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_IBM" title="History of IBM">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_IBM" title="History of IBM">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="IBM_and_World_War_II" title="IBM and World War II">World War II</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_mergers_and_acquisitions_by_IBM" title="List of mergers and acquisitions by IBM">Mergers and acquisitions</a>

<ul><li><a href="Acquisition_of_the_IBM_PC_business_by_Lenovo" title="Acquisition of the IBM PC business by Lenovo">PC business acquisition by Lenovo</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_IBM_products" title="List of IBM products">Products</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hardware8" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hardware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="IBM_mainframe" title="IBM mainframe">Mainframe</a>

<li><a href="IBM_Power_microprocessors" title="IBM Power microprocessors">Power microprocessors</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Power_Systems" title="IBM Power Systems">Power Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_storage" title="IBM storage">Storage</a>

<ul><li><a href="IBM_FlashSystem" title="IBM FlashSystem">FlashSystem</a></li>

<li>Quantum

<ul><li><a href="IBM_Q_System_One" title="IBM Q System One">Q System One</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Q_System_Two" title="IBM Q System Two">Q System Two</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Eagle" title="IBM Eagle">Eagle</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Osprey" title="IBM Osprey">Osprey</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Heron" title="IBM Heron">Heron</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Condor" title="IBM Condor">Condor</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Cell_(processor)" title="Cell (processor)">Cell microprocessors</a></li>

<li><a href="PowerPC" title="PowerPC">PowerPC</a></li>

<li><a href="Midrange_computer" title="Midrange computer">Midrange computer</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Personal_Computer" title="IBM Personal Computer">Personal Computer</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Selectric" title="IBM Selectric">Selectric</a></li>

<li><a href="ThinkPad" title="ThinkPad">ThinkPad</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_Design_System" title="Carbon Design System">Carbon Design System</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Cloud" title="IBM Cloud">Cloud</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cloudant" title="Cloudant">Cloudant</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Cognos_Analytics" title="IBM Cognos Analytics">Cognos Analytics</a></li>

<li><a href="HCL_Connections" title="HCL Connections">Connections</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminal_Reduction_Utilising_Statistical_History" title="Criminal Reduction Utilising Statistical History">Criminal Reduction Utilising Statistical History</a></li>

<li><a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Information_Management_Software" title="IBM Information Management Software">Information Management Software</a></li>

<li><a href="Lotus_Software" title="Lotus Software">Lotus Software</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_IBM_mainframe_operating_systems" title="History of IBM mainframe operating systems">Mainframe operating systems</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Mashup_Center" title="IBM Mashup Center">Mashup Center</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Planning_Analytics" title="IBM Planning Analytics">Planning Analytics</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_PureQuery" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM PureQuery">PureQuery</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Quantum_Platform" title="IBM Quantum Platform">Quantum Platform</a>

<ul><li><a href="Qiskit" title="Qiskit">Qiskit</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenQASM" title="OpenQASM">OpenQASM</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Rational_Software" title="Rational Software">Rational Software</a></li>

<li><a href="Tivoli_Software" title="Tivoli Software">Tivoli Software</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tivoli_Service_Automation_Manager" title="Tivoli Service Automation Manager">Service Automation Manager</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Watson" title="IBM Watson">Watson</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Watsonx" title="IBM Watsonx">Watsonx</a>

<ul><li><a href="IBM_Granite" title="IBM Granite">Granite</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="IBM_WebSphere" title="IBM WebSphere">WebSphere</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Business<br>entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apptio" title="Apptio">Apptio</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Center_for_The_Business_of_Government" title="IBM Center for The Business of Government">Center for The Business of Government</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Consulting" title="IBM Consulting">Consulting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Promontory_Financial_Group" title="Promontory Financial Group">Promontory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kenexa" title="Kenexa">Kenexa</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_international_subsidiaries_of_IBM" title="List of international subsidiaries of IBM">International subsidiaries</a>

<ul><li><a href="IBM_India" title="IBM India">India</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Press" title="IBM Press">Press</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Research" title="IBM Research">Research</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="AdStar" title="AdStar">AdStar</a></li>

<li><a href="AIM_alliance" title="AIM alliance">AIM alliance</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kaleida_Labs" title="Kaleida Labs">Kaleida Labs</a></li>

<li><a href="Taligent" title="Taligent">Taligent</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ambra_Computer_Corporation" title="Ambra Computer Corporation">Ambra Computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognos" title="Cognos">Cognos</a></li>

<li><a href="EduQuest" title="EduQuest">EduQuest</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyndryl" title="Kyndryl">Kyndryl</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexmark" title="Lexmark">Lexmark</a></li>

<li><a href="Merative" title="Merative">Merative</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Microelectronics" title="IBM Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Product_Center" title="IBM Product Center">Product Center</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_Research_Associates" title="Science Research Associates">Science Research Associates</a></li>

<li><a href="Service_Bureau_Corporation" title="Service Bureau Corporation">Service Bureau</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Weather_Company" title="The Weather Company">The Weather Company</a> (<a href="Weather_Underground_(weather_service)" title="Weather Underground (weather service)">Weather Underground</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Towers

<ul><li><a href="1250_Ren%C3%A9-L%C3%A9vesque" title="1250 René-Lévesque">1250 René-Lévesque</a>, Montreal, QC</li>

<li><a href="One_Atlantic_Center" title="One Atlantic Center">One Atlantic Center</a>, Atlanta, GA</li></ul></li>

<li>Software Labs

<ul><li><a href="IBM_Rome_Software_Lab" title="IBM Rome Software Lab">Rome Software Lab</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Toronto_Software_Lab" title="IBM Toronto Software Lab">Toronto Software Lab</a></li></ul></li>

<li>IBM Buildings

<ul><li><a href="AMA_Plaza" title="AMA Plaza">Chicago</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Building%2C_Honolulu" title="IBM Building, Honolulu">Honolulu</a></li>

<li><a href="1200_Fifth" title="1200 Fifth">Seattle</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Facilities

<ul><li><a href="Thomas_J._Watson_Research_Center" title="Thomas J. Watson Research Center">Thomas J. Watson Research Center</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Hakozaki_Facility" title="IBM Hakozaki Facility">Hakozaki Facility</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Yamato_Facility" title="IBM Yamato Facility">Yamato Facility</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cambridge_Scientific_Center" title="Cambridge Scientific Center">Cambridge Scientific Center</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Hursley" title="IBM Hursley">IBM Hursley</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Canada_Head_Office_Building" title="IBM Canada Head Office Building">Canada Head Office Building</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Rochester" title="IBM Rochester">IBM Rochester</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Initiatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Academy of Technology</li>

<li><a href="IBM_Deep_Thunder" title="IBM Deep Thunder">Deep Thunder</a>

<ul><li><a href="Develothon" title="Develothon">Develothon</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Fellow" title="IBM Fellow">Fellow</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM's_The_Great_Mind_Challenge" title="IBM's The Great Mind Challenge">The Great Mind Challenge</a></li>

<li><a href="Linux_Technology_Center" title="Linux Technology Center">Linux Technology Center</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_SkillsBuild" title="IBM SkillsBuild">SkillsBuild</a></li>

<li><a href="Smarter_Planet" title="Smarter Planet">Smarter Planet</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Virtual_Universe_Community" title="IBM Virtual Universe Community">Virtual Universe Community</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Community_Grid" title="World Community Grid">World Community Grid</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Think_conference" title="IBM Think conference">Think conference</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inventions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Automated_teller_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated teller machine">Automated teller machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Cynefin_framework" title="Cynefin framework">Cynefin framework</a></li>

<li><a href="Keypunch" title="Keypunch">Electronic keypunch</a></li>

<li><a href="Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk</a></li>

<li><a href="Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">Hard disk drive</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnetic_stripe_card" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic stripe card">Magnetic stripe card</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_model" title="Relational model">Relational model</a></li>

<li><a href="Sabre_(travel_reservation_system)" title="Sabre (travel reservation system)">Sabre airline reservation system</a></li>

<li><a href="Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">Scanning tunneling microscope</a></li>

<li><a href="Swap_(finance)" title="Swap (finance)">Financial swaps</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_Product_Code" title="Universal Product Code">Universal Product Code</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Commercial_Processing_Workload" title="Commercial Processing Workload">Commercial Processing Workload</a></li>

<li><a href="Customer_engineer" title="Customer engineer">Customer engineer</a></li>

<li><a href="Globally_integrated_enterprise" title="Globally integrated enterprise">Globally integrated enterprise</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_business" title="Electronic business">e-business</a></li>

<li><a href="Think_(slogan)" title="Think (slogan)">Think slogan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_IBM_CEOs" title="List of IBM CEOs">CEOs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Thomas_J._Watson" title="Thomas J. Watson">Thomas J. Watson</a> (1914–1956)</li>

<li><a href="Thomas_J._Watson_Jr." title="Thomas J. Watson Jr.">Thomas Watson Jr.</a> (1956–1971)</li>

<li><a href="T._Vincent_Learson" title="T. Vincent Learson">T. Vincent Learson</a> (1971–1973)</li>

<li><a href="Frank_T._Cary" title="Frank T. Cary">Frank T. Cary</a> (1973–1981)</li>

<li><a href="John_Fellows_Akers" title="John Fellows Akers">John Fellows Akers</a> (1985–1993)</li>

<li><a href="Lou_Gerstner" title="Lou Gerstner">Louis V. Gerstner Jr.</a> (1993–2002)</li>

<li><a href="Samuel_J._Palmisano" title="Samuel J. Palmisano">Samuel J. Palmisano</a> (2002–2011)</li>

<li><a href="Ginni_Rometty" title="Ginni Rometty">Ginni Rometty</a> (2012–2020)</li>

<li><a href="Arvind_Krishna" title="Arvind Krishna">Arvind Krishna</a> (since 2020)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Board of<br>directors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Thomas_Buberl" title="Thomas Buberl">Thomas Buberl</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Farr_(businessman)" title="David Farr (businessman)">David Farr</a></li>

<li><a href="Alex_Gorsky" title="Alex Gorsky">Alex Gorsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Michelle_Howard" title="Michelle Howard">Michelle J. Howard</a></li>

<li><a href="Arvind_Krishna" title="Arvind Krishna">Arvind Krishna</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrew_Liveris" title="Andrew Liveris">Andrew Liveris</a></li>

<li><a href="Martha_E._Pollack" class="mw-redirect" title="Martha E. Pollack">Martha E. Pollack</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_R._Swedish" title="Joseph R. Swedish">Joseph R. Swedish</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Voser" title="Peter Voser">Peter R. Voser</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li>Big Blue sports teams

<ul><li><a href="IBM_Big_Blue_(X-League)" title="IBM Big Blue (X-League)">American football</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Big_Blue_(rugby_union)" title="IBM Big Blue (rugby union)">Rugby union</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Common_Public_License" title="Common Public License">Common Public License</a>/<a href="IBM_Public_License" title="IBM Public License">IBM Public License</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Wallace_v._International_Business_Machines_Corp." title="Wallace v. International Business Machines Corp.">Wallace v. International Business Machines Corp.</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Deep_Thought_(chess_computer)" title="Deep Thought (chess computer)">Deep Thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_infrastructure" title="Dynamic infrastructure">Dynamic infrastructure</a></li>

<li><a href="GlobalFoundries" title="GlobalFoundries">GlobalFoundries</a></li>

<li><a href="GUIDE_International" title="GUIDE International">GUIDE International</a></li>

<li><i><a href="IBM_and_the_Holocaust" title="IBM and the Holocaust">IBM and the Holocaust</a></i></li>

<li><a href="IBM_international_chess_tournament" title="IBM international chess tournament">International chess tournament</a></li>

<li><a href="Lucifer_(cipher)" title="Lucifer (cipher)">Lucifer cipher</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Mathematica%3A_A_World_of_Numbers..._and_Beyond" title="Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond">Mathematica</a></i></li>

<li><a href="SHARE_(computing)" title="SHARE (computing)">SHARE computing</a></li>

<li><a href="ScicomP" title="ScicomP">ScicomP</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_and_unions" title="IBM and unions">Unions</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/IBM" class="extiw external" title="commons:IBM">Commons</a></li>

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<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"></span></span> Navigational boxes

<li>Midrange computers</li>

<li>Operating systems</li>

<li>Personal computers</li>

<li>System/360</li>

<li>System/370</li>

<li>Typewriters</li>

<li>Vacuum tube computers</li></ul></li></ul>

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<li><a href="ISO/IEC_27000_family" title="ISO/IEC 27000 family">27000 series</a></li>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47607#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1358" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47607#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1358" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1102869">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4134010-3">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh86006628">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12101816f">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12101816f">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="SQL (dotazovací jazyk)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph118067&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX531785">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007529742105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/60031704-2bce-4f59-bb1c-c5cac9d77584">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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